Measure a horses performance through both subjective and objective monitoring. | FEI/Mackenzie ClarkEquestrian sports demand advanced skills and can involve extensive physical effort from both horses and riders. No horse is born with the capacity to perform at the highest level, which is where training comes into play. We want the body to adapt to training, said Tim Worden, PhD, an equestrian sport scientist located in Toronto, Ontario, during his presentation at the 2025 IGNITE Sports Science for the Olympic Disciplines Seminar, held Jan. 12-13, in Ocala.But how do you prepare a horse to perform at the highest level of sport? What lessons can be taken from human athlete training and applied to horses?Lessons for Training Equine AthletesLesson #1: Be flexible with planning. Two steps forward one step back is the traditional saying, and its typically true. Worden said its always good to have a plan, but you also need to remember its just a framework. Your horse needs daily monitoring. Watch the horse in the stall, during warmup, and during competition or training. Take notice of any changes (good or bad) and be ready to adjust your plan.Lesson #2: If it matters, measure it. Are you and/or your horse getting better? You need to assess that somehow. Wearable sensors, smartphone applications, and software platforms might help, but it doesnt have to be that elaborate. You can record your observations in notebooks or spreadsheets.Lesson #3: Use exercises that must be solved in the desired way. The most effective training exercises mimic what youll be doing in competition and stimulate the same muscle patterns but are varied enough to keep routines fresh and engaging. Taking horses out of the arena and doing something faster (like a controlled gallop) than they typically go would be one way to do that, Worden said.Lesson #4: Guide athletes along the safest possible path. Minimize injury and setbacks by managing risk factors. Worden explained that high-risk events include travel; issues with hoof trimming, shoeing, and conformation; psychological challenges; tack and equipment changes; and stress. The better you manage high-risk activities the more you can reduce the likelihood of injuries.Take-Home MessageTo help advance a horses training, observe his behavior daily, watch how he moves during work and around the barn, and understand what that is telling you about his strengths and weaknesses. Track your horses progress over time. Utilize exercises that naturally encourage the horse to move in the desired or correct way and, as your primary goal, avoid injuries.

On February 5, two horses in Iowa County, Wisconsin, tested positive for strangles. The affected horses include a 17-year-old Quarter Horse mare and a 17-year-old pony gelding.EDCC Health Watch is an Equine Network marketing program that utilizes information from the Equine Disease Communication Center (EDCC) to create and disseminate verified equine disease reports. TheEDCCis an independent nonprofit organization that is supported by industry donations in order to provide open access to infectious disease information.About StranglesStranglesin horses is an infection caused byStreptococcus equisubspeciesequiand spread through direct contact with other equids or contaminated surfaces. Horses that arent showing clinical signs can harbor and spread the bacteria, and recovered horses remain contagious for at least six weeks, with the potential to cause outbreaks long-term.Infected horses can exhibit a variety of clinical signs:FeverSwollen and/or abscessed lymph nodesNasal dischargeCoughing or wheezingMuscle swellingDifficulty swallowingVeterinarians diagnose horses using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing with either a nasal swab, wash, or an abscess sample, and they treat most cases based on clinical signs, implementing antibiotics for severe cases. Overuse of antibiotics can prevent an infected horse from developing immunity. Most horses make a full recovery in three to four weeks.A vaccine is available but not always effective. Biosecurity measures of quarantining new horses at a facility and maintaining high standards of hygiene and disinfecting surfaces can helplower the risk of outbreakorcontain one when it occurs.

Three horses in Wisconsin recently tested positive for respiratory equine herpesvirus (EHV), including one horse in Dane County and two horsesa 3-year-old gelding and a 2-year-old marein Wood County. At the same facility in Wood County, four additional cases are suspected, and seven horses are exposed.Additionally, two properties in Wisconsin with previously reported EHV cases have been released from quarantine, including a facility in Green Lake County where one horse tested positive on January 6 and a facility in Clark County where one horse tested positive on January 16.EDCC Health Watch is an Equine Network marketing program that utilizes information from the Equine Disease Communication Center (EDCC) to create and disseminate verified equine disease reports. TheEDCCis an independent nonprofit organization that is supported by industry donations in order to provide open access to infectious disease information.EHV 101Herpesvirus is highly contagious among horses and can cause a variety of ailments in equids, including rhinopneumonitis (a respiratory disease usually found in young horses), abortion in broodmares, and EHM.In many horses, the first or only sign of EHV-1 infection is fever, which can go undetected.In addition to fever, other common signs of EHV-1 infection in young horses include cough, decreased appetite, depression, and a nasal discharge. Pregnant mares typically show no signs of infection before they abort, and abortions usually occur late in gestation (around eight months) but can be earlier. Abortions can occur anywhere from two weeks to several months following infection with EHV-1.Horses with EHM usually have a fever at the onset of the disease and might show signs of a respiratory infection. A few days later, neurologic signs such as ataxia (incoordination), weakness or paralysis of the fore- and hind limbs, urine retention and dribbling, loss of tail tone, and recumbency (inability to rise) develop.Herpesvirus is easily spread by nose-to-nose or close contact with an infectious horse; sharing contaminated equipment including bits, buckets, and towels; or clothing, hands, or equipment of people who have recently had contact with an infectious horse.Routine biosecurity measures, including hygiene and basic cleaning and disinfection practices, should be in place at all times to help prevent disease spread.Current EHV-1 vaccines might reduce viral shedding but are not protective against the neurologic form of the disease. Implementing routine biosecurity practices is the best way to minimize viral spread, and the best method of disease control is disease prevention.

The debate over training methods and their impact on horses remains heated, highlighting the ongoing need for educationThere are many ways to train a horse, but what methods are best for the animal? Science can help owners make a decision. | Getty imagesPassionate social media users often voice concerns about protecting horses from training methods portrayed in photos and videos. But despite those good intentions, the information sharedand sometimes aggressively promotedonline isnt always backed by scientific evidence, experts warn.Were tackling the tricky task of addressing some of the most criticized and misunderstood training methods in hopes of shedding some important light on whats really going on from a scientific perspective.While there are endless horse training tactics up for debate in our modern equestrian era, here well cover what our sources consider the top four that deserve clarification.Negative vs. Positive Reinforcement Horse Training MethodsNegative reinforcement and positive reinforcement dont get their names from being bad or good. Rather, these are mathematical ways of describing a reward, says Angelo Telatin, PhD, professor at Delaware Valley Universitys Equine Science and Management Department, in Doylestown, Pennsylvania. If the reward is getting rid of something you dont want, thats subtractionhence, negative. If the reward comes from getting something you do want, thats additionhence, positive.Proper negative reinforcement works by releasing the pressure of a light touch or tug, he says. Horses are sensitive to this painless contactsomewhat like an insistent tap on our shouldersso theyre motivated to find a way to make it stop. Through operant conditioning they then learn to respond to hand or voice signals first, avoiding pressure.Proper negative reinforcement works by releasing the pressure of an aid. | Practical Horseman/Nichole ChiricoIn positive reinforcement, trainers give a treat (or wither scratch or other reward) when the horse volunteers the desired response. Horses become highly motivated to find associations between hand/voice cues and their own behaviors that lead to rewards, says Marco Pagliai, a science-focused horse trainer based in Tuscany, Italy.Timing Is EverythingWhile each method has its scientific and welfare merits, critics argue negative reinforcement is blackmail and positive reinforcement turns trainers into vending machines, Pagliai says. But the biggest issue by far with both approaches is the trainers lack of knowledge and skill, he adds.Telatin agrees. Regardless of the method, people must master shapingrewarding the smallest steps of progressand highly precise timing, he says. Mistakes can tip training into punishment, whether its ongoing added pressure (positive punishment, PP), or ongoing withholding of a treat or other reward (negative punishment, NP).Negative reinforcement/positive punishment and positive reinforcement/negative punishment are two sides of the same coin, Telatin explains. If the timing is wrong, one becomes the other. If shaping doesnt follow multiple, very small steps, the horse is lost and mostly perceives punishment instead of reward.Common MistakesMistakes in negative reinforcement can make horses resistant to light cues, leading to stronger and more aversive pressure from the trainer, conflict behavior from the horse such as bucking and rearing, or even learned helplessness, says Pagliai. People often dont know when to release pressure, he explains. So many horses experience a lot of pressure and confusion, which is abusive.With positive reinforcement trainers reward the horse for the desired response. | Getty imagesMistakes in positive reinforcement, meanwhile, can make horses frustrated and anxious and even condition them to bite or charge. Its very easy to make mistakes with food, Pagliai says. And people blame the food instead of taking responsibility for their own bad timing and training mistakes.Positive reinforcement might even require more human skill than negative reinforcement does, due to horses strong food motivation, says Pagliai. With positive reinforcement, horses ask lots of questionswhich can put humans in a difficult position if they dont have all the answers.Individual differences between trainers and horses play an important role as well, Telatin says. Some people simply master one technique better than the other. And some horses just learn better with positive reinforcement, whereas others can literally turn into a rage machine to get cookies.Challenges of These Training MethodsThe challenges of getting positive reinforcement right might be related to the methods newness, says Robin Foster, PhD, CAAB, CEBC, a research professor at the University of Puget Sound, in Tacoma, Washington. We have a thousand years of protocols built up with negative reinforcement, and perhaps a decade of people developing protocols for positive reinforcement, she says. Even good trainers are often still pretty clunky with positive reinforcement. So its just not a fair comparison.For both Telatin and Pagliai, the ideal is a customized blend of negative and positive reinforcement for each horse, carried out by people with skilled training in each method.The best thing is to combine these two things and to know where and when you use them both, Pagliai says.Hyperflexion in Equine AthletesMost equestrian federations prohibit hyperflexionriding horses with the nose dipped toward the chest. Yet many riders, especially high-level competitors, continue to train their horses in hyperflexion, believing it leads to better scores, says Sue Dyson, MA, Vet MB, PhD, DEO, an independent consultant in Newmarket, U.K.Certainly dressage judges often reward horses with nasal planes angled behind the vertical, despite official rules, she says. And stewards frequently overlook the practice in the warm-up ring.A horse goes behind the vertical when his nose tips closer to his chest. | Getty imagesYet, researchers on multiple studies have shown hyperflexion places strain on neck muscles and can create a kink in the trachea (TheHorse.com/117618), reducing airflow and, hence, oxygen intake. Hyperflexed horses can strain to rotate their eyes for a better view of the ground but still struggle with a reduced field of vision. Hyperflexions got a cascade of effects, Foster says.Is Hyperflexion Always Bad?Despite these findings, though, horses often hyperflex the neck on their own, as they gallop, play, and scratch themselves, says Jean-Marie Denoix, DVM, PhD, Dipl. ACVSMR, ECVSMR, professor of equine movement pathologies at the French National Veterinary School at Alfort. Physiologically, its a movement thats natural for horses, so Im not shocked when I see it happen for brief periods.It can alsounder a skilled and educated riderimprove horses gymnastic ability, helping strengthen different muscle groups and allowing a wider range of healthy movements, he says. But like any gymnastic exercise, this kind of training has to occur in good hands, Denoix says.Consider the DetailsWhile this could seem contradictory, its important to consider the details, Dyson says. What is the angle? How long has the horse been hyperflexed? Is he being forced and constrained in this position? What is the horses natural neck shape?Individual differences matter too, says Foster. A few degrees might be easy for one horse and difficult for anotherdepending on genetics, conditioning, and musculoskeletal health, among other factors. Every horse is going to be limited in how much flexion they can display, she explains.Kathrin Kienapfel, PhD, of the Swiss National Stud Farms Equine Research Group, in Avenches, says shes eager for a clearer hyperflexion definition. Shes measured precise head and neck angles in hundreds of competitive dressage horses, finding many of them dip into hyperflexion at less than 10 degrees behind the vertical. Thats fairly consistent with Dysons work, in which she found 67% of FEI World Cup dressage horses held the head at least 10 degrees behind the vertical for at least 10 seconds in the show ring (TheHorse.com/1100095).How harmful or helpful are these angles for short moments? For now, we dont really know, our sources say, because most studies lump angles into three broad categories: at, behind, and in front of the vertical.Dyson says its essential to consider how far behind the vertical horses are. Her ridden behavior analyses revealed horses up to 15 degrees behind the verticalwhich she calls overbentwere comfortable during competition. But some tucked the head further during difficult moves such as the piaffe, which might reflect temporary discomfort, she says.True hyperflexion, she adds, occurs between 15 and 35 degrees behind the vertical. Dyson says under skilled riders, this can offer good gymnastic exercise for short bouts.RolkurBy contrast, rollkurin which the horses nose is stuck to the chest, at angles of 35 degrees or greater, is where we see the significant negative consequences on health and welfare described in research, she says. It also restricts stride length and the horses ability to lift his front end, upending the whole biomechanics of the horse.But regardless of angle, a horses head position should never be forced, says Dyson.Thats constraint, and its just not acceptable, says Denoix, adding that the psychological consequences might be even worse than the physical onesand especially dangerous for horses with spinal conditions such as intervertebral laxity (looseness).While many people fiercely criticize hyperflexion, though, the widespread issue of high-headed riding gets curiously overlooked, Dyson says. Excessive raising of the head and neck can also have major deleterious effects on back functionworse than behind the vertical in my opinion, she says.Desensitization as a Horse Training MethodPagliai says desensitization training often involves outdated and/or unethical methods to teach horses to not react to scary stimuli.A common mistake is assuming that when the horse stands still, the desensitization process is done. But it isnt, he says. You cant just assume hes not scared anymore and move on with training. You have to learn to look at the horse and really understand what hes feeling.Others desensitize horses using floodingpreventing a horse from getting away while inundating him with sights, sounds, or smells that scare him until he gives up.Were literally breaking the horse, he says. So hell do anything we ask him to dobut without any real focus and certainly without any positive emotion, like a robot. With the knowledge we have today, its totally terrifying that people still resort to flooding their horses.Foster, meanwhile, worries about more modern desensitization techniques, such as using positive reinforcement to teach horses to touch anything unfamiliar.It might seem like a smart move, but its actually a very dangerous thing to teach a young horse to touch any unknown thing, she says. What if its a sharp object, or a flame, or some other potentially harmful object? Theres a reason they should still exercise caution in many situations. What you want is a horse whos comfortable ignoring things and walking calmly past them.Whip TouchesTelatin says the verb to whip has a negative connotation that implies abuse. But the noun the whip can be a useful tool when employed with proper skill.I know welfare-focused trainers whod rather give up the saddle, bridle, and even halter than lose the whip, he says. They use the tool to gently touch horses from a greater distance than the arm alone can reach or to make noncontact visual cues.In the right hands, the whip should be called something like an indicator, because it indicates to the horse what youre asking him to dowithout inflicting any kind of painand then you remove it (which is negative reinforcement) once the horse gives the right response, he explains. Theres nothing improper about that, and it has absolutely nothing to do with whipping a horse.In fact, mustangs and other horses lacking human handling often accept whip touchesincluding wither scratchingas an important first step toward accepting the touch of a human hand, he adds.Timing Is Everything AgainLike the other methods described, though, ethical whip use requires advanced skills based on equine learning theory, says Telatin. People often flub the timing; touches should be either constant or made up of light taps less than a second apart, and they must stop immediately when the horse gives the response weve asked of him.Telatin says that in practice, tap intervals are frequently too longusually because the trainer moves the whip back to tap the horse again. If the horse experiences at least a full second without whip contact, he perceives this pause as a reward for some random behavior he performed and then cant understand why the whip contact keeps coming back. In essence, he learns to give the wrong response.Then people tend to get agitated, and they want to win, so their adrenaline picks up and suddenly theyre tapping faster without realizing it, Telatin says. And thats when the horse finally gets the shorter intervals he needs in order to learn. But the trainer thinks the horse was being testy or difficult and needed for us be tougher and more dominant. And thats just wrong.Whipping in horse racing is a more complex problemin part due to well-meaning no-consecutive-strike rules that interfere with timing, Telatin explains. Combined with the force of each stroke, the whip transforms from a communication tool into a punisher that randomly inflicts pain, which is the worst scenario for a horse, physically and emotionally.Regardless of the sport, whip use causing injury or fear is never acceptable, he insists.Take-Home Message Many training methods get hotly debated in todays equestrian world, but the arguments arent always grounded in sound science. A closer look reveals problems often lie in poor execution due to a lack of sufficient knowledge and training, our sources say. With better education, guided skill-building, and advancements in research, equestrians can adopt welfare-friendly training practices while steering clear of unscientific methods for the benefit of their horses.This article is from the Spring 2025 issue ofThe Horse: Your Guide to Equine Health Care. We at The Horse work to provide you with the latest and most reliable news and information on equine health, care, management, and welfare through our magazine and TheHorse.com. Your subscription helps The Horse continue to offer this vital resource to horse owners of all breeds, disciplines, and experience levels. To access current issues included in your subscription, please sign in to theAppleorGoogleapps ORclick herefor the desktop version.

Broodmares should carry a bit extra body condition during late gestation so her body has fat stores to meet the energy demands of lactation. | iStockQ: My mare is due in April. Right now my veterinarian says shes at a healthy weight, but Im worried she might lose weight as she gets closer to foaling and once she starts nursing. How will her nutritional needs change immediately before and after she has her foal, and how can I be sure her diet meets her energy needs?A: Great question, and youre right to wonder about the nutritional needs of your broodmare because they change as she progresses in her pregnancy and through lactation.While your vet indicated your mare is currently at a good weight, it is also important to know your mares body condition score (BCS). Ideally during late gestation, you want her to have a BCS between 5 and 6 using the Henneke body condition scale of 1-9 (with 1 being extremely thin and 9 being extremely fat). It can be beneficial for a broodmare to carry a little extra body condition during this time, so she has a buffer of body fat stores during the high energy demands of lactation. Being able to recognize and assess your mares BCS will help you ensure her diet is adequate in calories. However, just because a mare is in good body condition does not guarantee proper fetal development. Other nutrients such as protein, minerals, and vitamins are also needed to ensure a healthy future for your foal.Mare Nutrient Requirements in the Second and Third TrimesterSome of your mares nutrient requirements begin to slightly increase during her second trimester, beginning around the fifth month of pregnancy. But its really in her last trimester, starting around month 8, that her unborn foal begins to develop more rapidly, gaining both weight and body size. In fact, the fetus will gain approximately 1 pound per day in the last three months of gestation and will be approximately 60% of its mature height at birth.Your mares diet should meet her daily nutritional needs because if it does not, her body will deplete itself to meet the demands of the growing fetus. Her increased requirements for energy, protein, and trace mineralsmost notably calcium, phosphorous, and copperare vital for proper fetal development and ensure adequate milk production after the foal is born. Additionally, late gestation mares do not increase voluntary intake to match their higher nutrient demands, so simply feeding more is not necessarily a viable option to give her additional nutrition.Feeding the Late Gestation BroodmareForage should always be the main component of the diet, but even high-quality forages lack the protein, vitamin, and mineral fortification the mare needs during late gestation. For example, high-protein forages such as alfalfa are not well digested in the small intestine and could result in inadequate intake of amino acids. Supplementing with a high-quality concentrate feed designed with broodmares in mind and fed at the appropriate amount will ensure you are meeting her nutrient needs. If your mare is an easy keeper, a ration balancer would be appropriate if she is getting enough calories from her forage to maintain body condition.Feeding Lactating MaresOnce your mare begins lactating, her nutritional needs for energy, protein, minerals, and some vitamins will increase significantly. For example, her energy needs are double that of her maintenance requirements.While mares in late gestation might not increase their feed intake, lactating mares tend to have much greater appetites and your feeding program should reflect this. Lactating mares can consume up to 3% of their body weight in dry matter intake and at least half of this should be in forage. Once again, good-quality hay or pasture is recommended due to high nutrient demands. Feeding rates will vary depending on the quality of your hay or pasture and whether your mare is a heavy milker or a hard- or easy keeper.Most lactating mares cannot meet their high energy and nutrient demands consuming forage only. I recommend feeding a concentrate designed for broodmares to support milk production, provide essential nutrients for the foal, and help maintain your mares body condition. Feed according to manufacturers instructions for her weight and stage of lactation. Always increase feed gradually to the full feeding amount over a seven-to-10-day period to prevent digestive disturbance.Take-Home MessageThe best start for a foal begins with proper nutritional management of the mare. Broodmare owners benefit from learning body condition scoring and recognizing their mares specific nutritional needs before and after foaling.Do you have an equine nutrition question? Do you have an equine nutrition question? The Horses editors want to hear from you! Submit your question via the form below. Name(Required) First Last Email(Required) Submit your equine nutrition below!(Required)CAPTCHA

Six horses in Texas recently tested positive for equine infectious anemia (EIA), including two horses in Burleson County, one horse in Johnson County, two horses in Atascosa County, and one horse in Ector County. The properties are under quarantine and will not be released until the Texas Animal Health Commissions requirements have been met.Additionally, a facility in Bexar County where one horse previously tested positive has been released from quarantine.EDCC Health Watch is an Equine Network marketing program that utilizes information from the Equine Disease Communication Center (EDCC) to create and disseminate verified equine disease reports. TheEDCCis an independent nonprofit organization that is supported by industry donations in order to provide open access to infectious disease information.About EIAEquine infectious anemiais a viral disease that attacks horses immune systems. The virus is transmitted through the exchange of body fluids from an infected to an uninfected animal, often by blood-feeding insects such as horseflies. It can also be transmitted through the use of blood-contaminated instruments or needles.ACoggins test screens horses blood for antibodiesthat are indicative of the presence of the EIA virus. Most U.S. states require horses to have proof of a negative Coggins test to travel across state lines.Once an animal is infected with EIA, it is infected for life and can be a reservoir for the spread of disease. Not all horses show signs of disease,but those that do can exhibit:Progressive body condition loss;Muscle weakness;Poor stamina;Fever;Depression; andAnemia.EIA has no vaccine and no cure. A horse diagnosed with the disease dies, is euthanized, or must be placed under extremely strict quarantine conditions (at least 200 yards away from unaffected equids) for the rest of his life.

Osteoarthritis is a common but complex condition in horses. | Adobe stockDegenerative joint disease, or osteoarthritis (OA), in horses is a common but complicated condition. While there is no cure for OA, working with your veterinarian to correctly diagnose OA, slow its progression, and manage existing joint disease can help maintain your horses soundness in the long-term. Tune in to learn everything you need to know about equine degenerative joint disease.Register NowAsk The Horse Live begins on Thursday, March 13, 2025 at 8:00 p.m. EDT Days Hours MinutesAbout the Experts: Katie Ellis, DVM, MS, Dipl. ACVSMRKatie Ellis, DVM, MS, Dipl. ACVSMR, is a clinical assistant professor and section head of field services at the University of Georgias College of Veterinary Medicine, in Athens. Her research interests include equine rehabilitation and musculoskeletal imaging.Howland M. Mansfield, DVM, CVA, CVMMPHowland M. Mansfield, DVM, CVA, CVMMP, of Summerville, South Carolina, received her DVM from Tuskegee University School of Veterinary Medicine, in Alabama, and completed internships in both general equine medicine and surgery and in advanced equine reproduction. She is certified in both veterinary acupuncture and veterinary medical manipulation. She has practiced along the East Coast over the course of 14 years, in addition to time in Germany providing veterinary care for some of the most elite show horses in Europe. In 2012 Mansfield was named by the South Carolina Horsemans Council as the Horse Person of the Year for her efforts in equine rescue and in combating animal cruelty. She joined American Regent in 2023 as a technical services veterinarian where she can support the welfare of and improve health care for horses and small animals throughout the U.S.

Owners and managers can decrease their horses potential for impaction colic by monitoring diets, especially forage quality, water intake, and making sure fresh water is always available. | Anne M. Eberhardt/The HorseQ: Ive always heard horses are more prone to impaction colic during winter, especially if they dont drink enough water. Is this true? If so, what can I do to reduce my horses risk of impaction colic this winter?A: At its most basic, colic is a term covering a wide variety of abdominal pain and can occur throughout the year. Impaction colic describes an incidence of colic related to a large bolus of feedstuffs or waste being caught (impacted) within the intestines. Impaction colic during the colder months is commonly associated with two dietary changes: an increase in the amount of dry feed consumed (especially hay) and a decrease in water intake.A quick way to determine if your horse is consuming enough water is to routinely monitor his feces. If you notice dry, hard, and crumbly fecal balls, he is not drinking enough.What Horses Are Prone to Impaction Colic During Winter?Not all horses develop impaction colic during winter. Owners and managers can decrease their horses potential for the condition by monitoring diets, especially forage quality, water intake, and making sure fresh water is always available.Horses evolved as animals that spend a significant amount of their time walking around and consuming forage. This almost constant movement helps keep the digestive tract moving feedstuffs and waste through, so we should make sure our horses get exercise. When storms or weather extremes arrive, we often believe putting our horses in stalls is in their best interest. However, researchers have shown equine gut motility significantly decreases the first few days after a horse moves inside for stall confinement, which can lead to an increase in impaction colic risk.Improving Water Intake to Reduced Risk of Impaction ColicThe average adult horse consumes approximately 1 gallon of water per 100 pounds of body weight, or approximately 10 gallons if hes a 1,000-pound horse. Horses need water for proper digestion and movement of feedstuffs through the digestive tract; the drier the feed provided, the more water the horse needs for the digestive tract to function properly.In colder months, be certain your horse has water available that is not frozen. Some horses are willing to break a layer of ice if it forms on top of the water source, while others are more reluctant. Check your horses water sources several times each day to ensure they have not frozen. If your horse doesnt want to drink very cold water, consider adding warm water (even from a thermos if you dont have hot water in your barn) to bring up the water temperature in his buckets. You can also find ways to insulate buckets to help keep water from freezing if you cannot use heated buckets or trough heaters.Top dressing either concentrate or flakes of hay with some loose table salt or other electrolytes can encourage a horse to drink. Soaking his feed and making a mash or slurry also incorporates more water into his diet. Although horse owners have historically used bran mashes, suddenly providing a feed like this can cause digestive upset or unbalance the diet. Now researchers discourage owners from feeding a true bran mash.Take-Home MessageKeeping your horse hydrated is a key step to limiting his risk of impaction colic. Make sure the water you provide him is palatable and not frozen and be sure he has exercise opportunities to improve gut motility. Finally, check his hydration status daily to ensure he consumes enough water.Do you have an equine nutrition question? Do you have an equine nutrition question? The Horses editors want to hear from you! Submit your question via the form below. Name(Required) First Last Email(Required) Submit your equine nutrition below!(Required)CAPTCHA

Classical conditioning is inherent in your many routine interactions with your horse. The rattling sound of grain buckets at dinner time eliciting excited nickers up and down the barn aisle? Thats classical conditioning. A stallion that knows whether hes heading to his paddock or to the breeding shed based on the halter hes wearing? Also classical conditioning. The seasoned school horse that pins his ears at the sight of the saddle and girth? You guessed it, classical conditioning.Also known as associative learning, classical conditioning is one of the oldest, simplest, and most widely used methods of training horses. For this article weve teamed up with two trainers to bring you the latest research and share practical applications for this powerful cognitive tool. Alex Travis, MSc, owner of Indigenous Equine, in Snowflake, Arizona, has a masters degree in animal comparative biomedical science. She teaches holistic horsemanship practices based on the Least Intrusive, Minimally Aversive (LIMA) method, prioritizing positive reinforcement and liberty work. Shelby Dennis, owner of Milestone Equestrian, in British Columbia, Canada, is a certified equine behavior consultant through the International Association of Animal Behavior Consultants (IAABB) and holds a certificate of equine science from the University of Guelph, in Ontario. Dennis specializes in training horses with behavioral problems and is passionate about improving both equine welfare and scientific literacy in the horse industry. Our two sources have helped us answer five common questions about classical conditioning. Lets start with the basics.1. What Is Classical Conditioning?The horse-human relationship has been developing since the horse was first domesticated about 6,000 years ago. Associative learning has been used since the very beginning as one of the most basic forms of communication between the two species, but Ivan Pavlov coined the term classical conditioning in 1897. A Russian-Soviet scientist, Pavlov incidentally realized dogs that had learned to link the sound of a bell with being fed would eventually salivate at the sound of the bell alone, even in the absence of food. He called this a conditioned reflex. In essence, classical conditioning is the involuntary act of associating a neutral stimulus with a positive or negative one. The learned behavior (salivating, in the case of Pavlovs dogs) is a conditioned, involuntary response to the previously neutral stimulus of the sound of a bell. Going back to the first example in our introduction, the rattling sound of the grain buckets is the equine equivalent of the dogs bell signaling the arrival of food.2. Classical Conditioning vs. Operant Conditioning: Whats the Difference?Equestrians who look into classical conditioning usually also learn about operant conditioning. Classical and operant conditioning work hand in hand, serving complementary yet distinct purposes. Making a learned association (classical conditioning) is one of the most powerful means of teaching horses because it is involuntary, says Travis. It just happens automatically. That is a big difference from operant conditioning, where the learning is voluntary.She further explains the difference between the two learning methods:Classical conditioning: involuntary associations made with previously neutral stimuli.Operant conditioning: voluntary actions maintained or dissuaded through consequences.Operant conditioning is divided into four quadrants:Positive Reinforcement/RewardNegative Reinforcement/RewardPositive PunishmentNegative PunishmentIn operant conditioning, the goal of reinforcement (or reward) is to make a behavior more likely to happen again, and the goal of punishment is to make a behavior less likely to happen again. In this context, positive and negative dont mean good or bad, says Travis. Instead, positive means adding and negative means removing a stimulus.She gives us a real-world example: You are longeing your horse in the round pen with a longe whip and tapping him on the butt if he breaks from the trot into a walk. That is positive punishment (operant conditioning)as well as negative reinforcement, because youre removing the stimulus when the horse does the desired taskand you are also creating a negative learned association to the whip in the process (classical conditioning). As this scenario demonstrates, the two types of conditioning are often intertwined during the learning process.Through target training, Shelby Dennis uses classical and operant conditioning to teach the horse to associate touching a particular object with a reward. | Courtesy Carleen Geisler3. Is Clicker Training a Form of Classical Conditioning?The short answer is yes. Clicker training uses classical conditioning to teach the horse to associate a reward with a specific sound, oftentimes a clicker or another auditory signal such as Yes or Good, explains Dennis. Specifically, trainers use classical conditioning in the bridging phase of clicker training, where the horse learns to associate the click noise (or the verbal praise) with a positive outcome: Click means I did good, and a reward is coming. Generally, this reward is food.Once youve established this chain reaction in the horses brain, you can then use operant conditioning to produce the desired behaviors. Each time the horse offers the correct answer, you produce the click noise, letting him know he did the right thing. In this instance, youre using classical conditioning to offer positive reinforcement during operant conditioning.Our sources describe clicker training as an effective, stress-free, and force-free method of training your horse. This being said, criticism of the technique lies in the fact that horses can become frustrated if the food reward is withheld and develop nipping or biting behaviors as a result.Conditioned reflexes become just that: reflexes. Anyone whos tried to get rid of a bad habit knows how difficult it can be to break those involuntary, repeated actions. As a behaviorist and trainer, I can confidently say that undoing negative learned associations is the hardest part of my job, says Travis. Sometimes it isnt even possible, in part because an animal has absolutely no control over involuntary responses.As prey animals, horses are naturally equipped with a strong survival instinct. It sometimes takes a single negative experience to create a permanent aversion. Take, for example, a jumper crashing through a liverpool (an obstacle built with water) and being terrified of blue tarps and water jumps for life. Thats why you must perform associative learning carefully and intentionally.Final Thoughts Classical conditioning can be both exciting and empowering as an equine training tool. You can use it to create conditioned reflexes that become second nature to your horse, allowing you to rewire his brain and shape his actions. Our sources say that by prioritizing rewards, associative learning is a welfare-friendly tool that improves the learning experience for both horse and human. Not to mention, it can be a great way to bond with your horse and teach him fun tricks.

Tailor your dam and foals feeding program from late pregnancy to weaning with expert guidance.During the final three months of gestation, a mares nutritional needs increase to support both her energy requirements and the developing fetus. | Getty imagesAs your mare approaches the final stages of pregnancy, the countdown to her foals arrival can feel like an eternity. But while it might seem like little is happening, the final three months of gestation are critical for both the mare and the unborn foal. Planning the mare and foal diet becomes important.During this time her nutritional needs intensify, and a carefully planned feeding program becomes essential to ensure both mare and foal thrive.Here, Kris Hiney, PhD, an extension specialist and associate professor at Oklahoma State University, in Stillwater, and Laurie Lawrence, PhD, a professor in the University of Kentuckys College of Agriculture, Food and Environment, in Lexington, share their insights on creating an effective feeding strategy to support your mares late-stage pregnancy and the foals early development. Feeding Late-Gestation MaresThe Last 90 DaysHiney explains that until the last 90 days of your mares pregnancy, the feeding routine mimics that of a horse in light work. However, during the final three months, her nutritional needs increase to support both her energy requirements and the developing fetus.The nice thing is that late-gestation mares are not hard to feed as long as youre making sure (they are) in good body condition, Hiney says.Veterinarians and equine nutritionists consider a score of 5 to 6 on the Henneke body condition scale ideal for these mares. At that level you might not see the ribs but can easily feel them. A horse at a 6 has a little more fat cover, but you shouldnt have to dig to find a rib on the horse. In colder climates Lawrence prefers mares stay at a 6 in the last three months of gestation to ensure they have enough reserves for lactation.Mares that are heavy milkers may benefit from being close to 6 so they dont become skinny during lactation, Lawrence says. Every mare is an individual, but I would recommend that she have free access to good-quality hay, possibly an alfalfa-grass mix (grasses such as timothy or orchard grass), or good-quality pasture, or a combination of both and then enough concentrate to maintain a body condition score between 5 and 6.Pasture as Part of the Mares DietIf you rely on pasture to meet your mares nutrient requirements, it must contain good- quality grass. | Adobe StockIndeed, grass can be an acceptable forage source so long as its good quality. Pasture is not merely something with a fence around it, says Hiney. If you rely on pasture to meet your mares nutrient requirements, it must contain grass speciesnot weeds or forbs (flowering plants with broad leaves and soft stems). For maximum nutrition, grass should be 4 to 6 inches high because grass in the early stages of growth contains higher nutrient levels.If the forage is sparse, I might be worried that its not going to meet that broodmares nutrient needs, Hiney says. That doesnt mean pull her off pasture, but you might need to step in with supplementation.Both Lawrence and Hiney stress that when grazing mares on tall fescue or feeding fescue hay, it must be free from the toxic endophyte found in some of these plants. Endophyte-infected fescue can cause health complications in late-term mares such as prolonged gestation, dystocia (difficult birth), and low or no milk production, and it increases the fatality risk in foals.Formulated feeds also make up part of the ration equation for most horses. Late-gestation mares weighing around 1,200 pounds need 2 to 3 pounds more grain than their nonpregnant counterparts, Hiney explains. But this depends on several factors, including forage quality and the energy density of the feed concentrate.If access to pasture is unavailable and/or hay is limited, mares could require a high-quality grass hay at 1% of her body weight in combination with as much as 6 to 7 pounds of a typically formulated grain mix daily, Hiney says.Feeding Lactating Mares and Foals to 3 Months OldThe minute the foal touches the ground, your mares nutritional needs skyrocket. The foal relies on mom exclusively for his nutritional needs until about 2 months of age.People dont realize how much milk production ups her nutrition needs, Hiney explains. They go up to almost twice as much as a maintenance horse. Thats a big jump if you havent had broodmares.On average, a 1,200-pound mare needs 12 to 15 pounds of an average-energy-density grain mix in addition to 10-12 pounds of a good-quality hay to meet her energy needs at this point, says Hiney. Protein plays a critical role during this time frame, and Hiney says owners commonly supplement mares with a 16% protein concentrate. However, consider the forage sourceget the hay testedbefore determining how much concentrate to provide.If youre feeding 18% (protein) alfalfa hay, the mare is already getting quite a bit of protein from that source, Hiney says. You have to know whats in the forage and then map it out.People dont realize how much milk production ups (the mares) nutrition needs, says Dr. Kris Hiney. They increase to almost twice those of a horse kept at maintenance. | Adobe stockLawrence adds that mares can produce 5 gallons of milk or more per day during lactation, most of which consists of water. Therefore, she recommends providing an abundant water supply. It should be the equivalent of at least two 5-gallon buckets of water per day.The Foal DietWhile milk is the primary nutrient source for foals under 2 months of age, most will start eating their mothers feed and hay soon after birth. By about 2.5 months of age, the foals nutrient needs exceed the nutrients provided by milk alone, so you need to provide enough good-quality forage for him, as well.At this time, it is probably a good idea to start introducing the foal to its own feed tub and providing some concentrate (one-half pound or so to start) twice a day, Lawrence says. Some babies are really aggressive and run their mothers from the feed tub.Hanging feed tubs out of the foals reach can keep him out of moms ration. Nose bags for the mare are another option. Similarly, mares might need to be kept out of the foals portion. Feeders with bars set narrower than the mares muzzle and paddock exclusion areas that only the foal can enter can prevent the mares consumption. Putting the mare and foal in separate stalls during feeding serves a dual purpose of preparing the two for weaning.Mares and foals can quickly look unthrifty if the mare does not receive adequate nutrition. Lawrence and Hiney agree its essential to observe the mare and foal closely and assess their body condition scores regularly to make necessary feeding adjustments as soon as possible. Fortunately, mares typically eat more forage and supplemental concentrates when provided.Keep in mind that when pasture is abundant, some mares will gain weight and may not need a true concentrate feed, but they still need mineral fortification, Lawrence says. Offering 1 to 2 pounds of a ration-balancer feed can be the solution to meeting needs without adding extra calories that result in excess weight gain.Feeding Foals 3 Months Old to WeaningBy 3 months of age, a foal consumes and uses nutrients from pasture, hay, and concentrate feeds in addition to continuing to nurse. Gradually increasing his ration during the next few months helps reduce the amount of stress experienced at weaning.At six months, you want the foal eating what he will be eating when weaned, Hiney says. Nutritionally, that is the least stressful for him (compared to) an abrupt change in grain or forage.Generally speaking, weanlings should consume 3 to 5 pounds of concentrate formulated for growing horses each day, along with good- to high-quality foragepasture and hay. | Getty imagesLawrence shared the advice of one of her mentors: Feed one-half to 1.5 pounds of concentrate per month of age. That would mean the foal receives 2.5 to 7.5 pounds of concentrate by the time hes weaned at 5 months old. Generally, the foal approaching weaning should consume 3 to 5 pounds of concentrate (formulated for growing horses) with good- to high-quality forage.That seems like a huge range, but it would be adjusted on the size of the foal and the quality of the forage, she says. If the forage is low in digestibility and nutrients, then more concentrate is needed. Likewise, if the forage is ultra-high quality, then the lower range is used.Keep in mind overfeeding can lead to rapid growth, which increases the risk of joint and bone diseases such as osteochondritis dissecans (OCD), a condition commonly diagnosed in young horses. This issue occurs when joint cartilage doesnt form properly, leading to inflammation and potential lameness. Excessive growth can also simply stress the developing musculoskeletal system.On the other hand, a young horse that isnt receiving enough nutrition and is growing too slowly might experience stunted development.Feeding the Mare At WeaningAs the foals ration increases, the mares should decrease, says Hiney. For example, if the dam receives 10 pounds daily, backing down to 7 or 8 pounds helps prepare her for the transition as well.After weaning, dont forget the mare. First, nursing is the main stimulator of milk production. Once the foal is gone, the mares supply will dry up, Lawrence explains. Removing her feed does not make this happen.Second, we are pretty sure that mares mobilize some mineral stores during late gestation and lactation to maintain milk production and all of her own important body functions, she says. This happens in women who are nursing to some extent, regardless of nutrient intake.In women, depleted mineral stores (in the bones) are replaced after lactation ends. This likely happens in mares as well. But in many mares the end of lactation coincides with the fourth or fifth month of gestation if they are rebred.Important fetal development is occurring at this time, and the accumulation of fetal mass begins to escalate, Lawrence says. The window of opportunity to replenish stores is probably small. Fall pasture is often abundant, and mares maintain weight with minimal concentrate but fortification is still needed, so (this is) another opportunity to use a balancer pellet. If a mare ends lactation with a body condition score of 5 or less, then concentrate intake is maintained to provide for both replenishing of fat stores and other stores.Mare and Foal Diet A Balancing ActMares and foals through late gestation to weaning need sufficient nutrition to support overall good health. Providing the dam enough forage and concentrate feed to maintain a body condition score of 5 to 6 requires a balance of skill and knowledge. But avoiding overfeedingespecially in young horsesholds equal importance to avoid joint disease. A well-designed and managed feeding program promotes steady, moderate growth, helping the young horse reach his potential while taking into account his unique needs